Evaluating the Agronomic and Economic Yield of Rice: An Effective Way for Delivering Extension Service
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24925/turjaf.v13i9.2655-2666.7759Keywords:
Cost-benefit Analysis, NERICA 10, Planting Density, Seedling Age, Straw Yield, Tsubo-Gari SamplingAbstract
Over the past decade, Africa has experienced the fastest-growing demand for rice globally, underscoring the crop’s significant economic and social importance. Despite this surge in demand, rice yields across the continent remain among the lowest compared to other major rice-producing regions, leading to a heavy reliance on imports. Enhancing rice productivity is therefore critical and can be achieved by optimizing key agronomic practices, such as planting density and seedling age. This study aims to identify the appropriate seedling age and optimal planting density for the NERICA 10 rice variety to maximize grain and straw yields while ensuring high net profitability. The experiment was conducted using a factorial randomized block design with three replications. Seedling age of 21 and 28 days after sowing (DAS) and planting density of 14.5, 20.0, and 25.6 hills/m2 were used as factors. Plant length, stem number, leaf color, heading date, paddy yield, yield components, and straw yield were measured. Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and JMP (ver.14.0). The ANOVA result revealed that, there was no interaction effects between seeding age and planting density on growth, paddy yield and yield components, straw yield, and harvest index. However, seedling age had significant effect on plant length, stem number/m2 and headings; while planting density had a significant effect on the number of stems/m2, panicles/m2, and spikelets/panicle. Number of panicles/m2 had also a strong and significant relationship with paddy yield. In paddy yield estimated from yield components, the combination of 28-day-old seedlings with a planting density of 25.6 hills/m² (A2D3) had a 5.4% advantage over the combination of 21-day-old seedlings with a planting density of 20.0 hills/m² (A1D2). However, in Tsubo-Gari sampling, A1D2 outperformed in paddy and straw yield that reached up to 28.3% and 30.2%, respectively, and gave net benefit advantage between 978.35 to 2329.33 USD over alternatives. Applying A1D2 (20.0 hills/m2) decreased seedling cost/ha by 198.7 USD, increased milled rice by 0.98 ton/ha and net profit by 1982.05 USD over A2D3 (25.6 hills/m2). Therefore, A1D2 is recommended as the most effective treatment for optimizing both yield and profitability.
References
Abookheili, F. A., & Mobasser, H. R. (2021). Effect of planting density on growth characteristics and grain yield increase in successive cultivations of two rice cultivars. Geosystems, Geosciences & Environment, 4, e20213. https://doi.org/10.1002/agg2.20213
Arouna, A., Fatognon, I. K., Saito, K., & Futakuchi, K. (2021). Moving toward rice self-sufficiency in sub-Saharan Africa by 2030: Lessons learned from 10 years of the Coalition for African Rice Development. World Development Perspectives, 21, 100291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2021.100291
Asmamaw, B. A. (2017). Effect of planting density on growth, yield and yield attributes of rice (Oryza sativa L.). African Journal of Agricultural Research, 12(34), 2611–2618. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2017.12491
Bozorgi, H. R., Faraji, A., Danesh, R. K., Tarighi, F., et al. (2011). Effect of plant density on yield and yield components of rice. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(11), 2053–2057.
Casler, M. D. (2015). Fundamentals of experimental design: Guidelines for designing successful experiments. Agronomy Journal, 107(2), 692–705. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2013.0114
Cassman, K. G., Peng, S., Olk, D. C., Ladha, J. K., Reichardt, W., Dobermann, A., & Singh, U. (1998). Opportunities for increased nitrogen-use efficiency from improved resource management in irrigated rice systems. Field Crops Research, 56(1–2), 7–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00140-8
Caton, B. P., Foin, T. C., & Hill, J. E. (1997). Mechanisms of competition for light between rice (Oryza sativa) and redstem (Ammannia spp.). Weed Science, 45(2), 269–275.
Diyoprakuso, F., Suryanto, A., & Soelistyono, R. (2022). The effect of planting time and plant density on radiation use efficiency (RUE) on lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) cv. Inpari 30. Agrinika: Jurnal Agroteknologi dan Agribisnis, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.30737/agrinika.v6i2.3118
Dong, B., Zheng, X., Liu, H., Able, J. A., Yang, H., Zhao, H., Zhang, M., Qiao, Y., Wang, Y., & Liu, M. (2017). Effects of drought stress on pollen sterility, grain yield, abscisic acid and protective enzymes in two winter wheat cultivars. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1008. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.01008
Elliott, J., Müller, C., Deryng, D., Chryssanthacopoulos, J., & Flörke, M. (2015). The effect of antecedence on empirical model forecasts of crop yield. Agricultural Systems, 142, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2015.01.002
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAOSTAT). (2024). FAO Corporate Statistical Database. https://www.fao.org/faostat/
Fujiie, H., & Suzuki, F. (2024). How has rice production in sub-Saharan Africa expanded? A comparison of growth rates before and after CARD implementation and the case of Tanzania. JICA Ogata Research Institute.
Gao, J., Lei, M., Yang, L., Wang, P., Tao, H., & Huang, S. (2021). Reduced row spacing improved yield by optimizing root distribution in maize. European Journal of Agronomy, 127, 126291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2021.126291
Ginigaddara, G. A. S., & Ranamukhaarachchi, S. L. (2011). Study of age of seedlings at transplanting on growth dynamics and yield of rice under alternating flooding and suspension of irrigation of water management. Recent Research in Science and Technology, 3(11), 16–21.
Gomez, K. A., & Gomez, A. A. (1984). Statistical procedures for agricultural research (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Hammond, J., Bezabih, M., Kemal, S. A., Tamene, L., Agegnehu, G., Yahaya, R., Gebrekirstos, A., Thai, M., Sharma, K., Adie, A., & Whitbread, A. (2023). Research for development approaches in mixed crop-livestock systems of the Ethiopian highlands. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1080725. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1080725
Horton, P. (2000). Prospects for crop improvement through the genetic manipulation of photosynthesis: Morphological and biochemical aspects of light capture. Journal of Experimental Botany, 51(Suppl. 1), 475–485. https://doi.org/10.1093/jexbot/51.suppl_1.475
Hou, X., Li, R., He, W., & Ma, K. (2020). Effects of planting density on potato growth, yield, and water use efficiency during years with variable rainfall on the Loess Plateau, China. Agricultural Water Management, 230, 105982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105982
Huang, L., Wang, F., Liu, Y., Tian, X., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Can optimizing seeding rate and planting density alleviate the yield loss of double-season rice caused by prolonged seedling age? Crop Science, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/csc2.20541
Kalaitzidis, A., Kadoglidou, K., Mylonas, I., Ghoghoberidze, S., Ninou, E., & Katsantonis, D. (2025). Investigating the impact of tillering on yield and yield-related traits in European rice cultivars. Agriculture, 15(6), 616. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15060616
Kalyan, M. P., Shilpa, & Vardhan, M. S. C. N. (2025). Impact of different row spacing and nitrogen levels on growth and yield of transplanted rice (Oryza sativa L.). International Journal of Research in Agronomy, 8(5C), 2888. https://doi.org/10.33545/2618060X.2025.v8.i5c.2888
Krishna, V. V., Spielman, D. J., & Veettil, P. C. (2019). The economic costs of seed replacement: Evidence from hybrid rice in India. Agricultural Economics, 50(6), 749–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12525
Kumar, R., & Singh, A. (2020). Optimizing seed density for sustainable rice production: Evidence from field trials. Agricultural Systems, 182, 102857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102857
Lee, H., Hwang, W., Jeong, J., Yang, S., Jeong, N., Lee, C., & Choi, M. (2021). Physiological causes of transplantation shock on rice growth inhibition and delayed heading. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 16818. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96009-z
Li, C., Barclay, H., Roitberg, B., & Lalonde, R. (2021). Ecology and prediction of compensatory growth: From theory to application in forestry. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 655417. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.655417
Liu, P., Yin, B., Liu, X., Gu, L., Guo, J., Yang, M., & Zhen, W. (2023). Optimizing plant spatial competition can change phytohormone content and promote tillering, thereby improving wheat yield. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14, 1147711. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1147711
Liu, Q., Zhou, X., Li, J., & Xin, C. (2017). Effects of seedling age and cultivation density on agronomic characteristics and grain yield of mechanically transplanted rice. Scientific Reports, 7, 14072. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14672-7
Luo, W., Chen, M., Kang, Y., Li, W., Li, D., Cui, Y., Khan, S., & Luo, Y. (2022). Analysis of crop water requirements and irrigation demands for rice: Implications for increasing effective rainfall. Agricultural Water Management, 259, 107285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.107285
Mai, W., Abliz, B., & Xue, X. (2021). Increased number of spikelets per panicle is the main factor in higher yield of transplanted vs. direct-seeded rice. Agronomy, 11(12), 2479. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
Mi, K., Lu, Y., Zhang, M., Xu, F., Yang, Y., Zhang, H., & Zhang, H. (2025). Studies on the mechanism of the formation of yield differences in indica–japonica hybrid rice. BMC Plant Biology, 25, Article 105. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-025-07105-5
Mitra, B., Singha, P., Roy Chowdhury, A., Sinha, A. K., Skalicky, M., Brestic, M., Alamri, S., & Hossain, A. (2023). Normalized difference vegetation index sensor-based nitrogen management in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.): Nutrient uptake, use efficiency, and partial nutrient balance. Frontiers in Plant Science, 14, 1153500. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1153500
Moldenhauer, K., Counce, P., & Hardke, J. (2020). Rice growth and development. In University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture, Arkansas rice production handbook (MP192, Chapter 2). University of Arkansas. https://www.uaex.uada.edu/publications/pdf/mp192/chapter-2-word.pdf
Mottaleb, K. A., Mohanty, S., & Nelson, A. (2020). Factors influencing hybrid rice adoption: A case study from Bangladesh. Agricultural Systems, 184, 102906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102906
Peng, S., Garcia, F. V., Laza, R. C., Sanico, A. L., Visperas, R. M., & Cassman, K. G. (1996). Increased N-use efficiency using a chlorophyll meter on high-yielding irrigated rice. Field Crops Research, 47(2–3), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290(96)00018-4
Saito, K., Senthilkumar, K., Dossou-Yovo, E., Ali, I., Johnson, J. M., Mujawamariya, G., & Rodenburg, J. (2023). Status quo and challenges of rice production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Plant Production Science. https://doi.org/10.1080/1343943X.2023.2241712
Shew, A. M., Durand-Morat, A., Nalley, L. L., & Wailes, E. J. (2021). Rice production and profitability under alternative seed technologies in Arkansas. Agronomy Journal, 113(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/agj2.20471
Siewe, F., Egwuma, H., Sanni, A., Ahmed, B., Abu, S. T., Nwahia, C. O., Fani, D. C. R., Abdulkadir, A., & Ogunsola, E. O. (2023). A best-bet system of rice intensification for sustainable rice (Oryza sativa L.) production in Northwestern Nigeria. Agronomy, 13(8), 2049. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13082049
Takeshima, H., Yamauchi, F., & Liu, Y. (2020). Rising costs of rice production in Asia: Policy implications for food security. Food Policy, 92, 101876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101876
Tang, L., Song, J., Cui, Y., Fan, H., & Wang, J. (2025). Research progress on a wide and narrow row cropping system for crops. Agronomy, 15(1), 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010248
Van Nguyen, D., & Ferrero, A. (2022). Sustainable rice production systems: Challenges and opportunities. Field Crops Research, 285, 108593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108593
Wang, J., Han, M., Huang, Y., Zhao, J., Liu, C., & Ma, Y. (2024). Flooding tolerance of rice: Regulatory pathways and adaptive mechanisms. Plants, 13(9), 1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13091178
Wang, X., Guo, Y., Qi, W., Zhen, L., Yao, Y., & Qin, F. (2022). Compensatory growth and understory soil stoichiometric features of Hippophae rhamnoides at different stubble heights. PeerJ, 10, e13363. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13363
Weisskopf, A., Harvey, E., Kingwell-Banham, E., Kajale, M., Mohanty, R., & Fuller, D. Q. (2014). Archaeobotanical implications of phytolith assemblages from cultivated rice systems, wild rice stands and macro-regional patterns. Journal of Archaeological Science, 51, 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.026
Wossen, T., Spielman, D. J., & Falck-Zepeda, J. (2021). Varietal adoption, seed commercial behavior, and impacts on poverty and food security. World Development, 146, 105603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105603
Xu, T., Zhang, H., Gong, J., Wang, L., Wang, Y., Qiu, W., Liu, M., Li, S., Fei, Y., Li, Q., et al. (2025). Optimizing nitrogen fertilizer rate and investigating mechanism driving grain yield increase for rice in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Plants, 14(15), 2326. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14152326
Yang, G., Wang, X., Nabi, F., Wang, H., Zhao, C., Peng, Y., Ma, J., & Hu, Y. (2021). Optimizing planting density and impact of panicle types on grain yield and microclimatic response index of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). International Journal of Plant Production, 15, 447–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42106-021-00150-8
Yoshida, S. (1981). Fundamentals of rice crop science. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Zhang, N., Liu, Y., Gui, S., & Wang, Y. (2024). Regulation of tillering and panicle branching in rice and wheat. Journal of Genetics and Genomics, 51(12), 869–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgg.2024.12.005
Zhao, C., Chen, J., Cao, F., Wang, W., Zheng, H., & Huang, M. (2025). Exploring key yield components influencing grain yield in ultrashort- and short-duration rice cultivars. Agronomy, 15(5), 1056. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051056
Zhao, L., Zhou, H., Tang, L., Na, Y., Duan, S., Zheng, D., Feng, N., & Shen, X. (2024). Optimizing nitrogen dosage and planting density to improve japonica rice yield. Agronomy, 14(8), 1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081738
Zhao, Y., Zhang, Z., & Li, X. (2022). Grain yield improvement in high-quality rice varieties released in China from 2007 to 2017
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
